Author Archives: markdowe1

Arts, History, Philosophy

(Philosophy) Essential Thinkers: Plato

c.427 – 347BC

Plato seeks to understand and discover the ideal form of society. This is propagated through his concept of The Republic. But this notion has had scholars divided.

STUDENT of Socrates and founder of the Academy, the first reported institution of higher education – no philosopher has had a greater or wider-ranging influence in the history of philosophy than Plato. Alfred North Whitehead once said, with much justification, that the safest characterisation of Western philosophy is that of a series of footnotes to Plato. There is no topic of philosophical concern for which one cannot find some view in the corpus of his work.

Accordingly, it can be difficult to characterise such a vast and comprehensive canon of thought. However, much of Plato’s work revolves around his conception of a realm of ideal forms. The world of experience is illusory, Plato tells us, since only that which is unchanging and eternal is real, an idea he borrowed from Parmenides. There must, then, Plato asserts, be a realm of eternal unchanging forms that are the blueprints of the ephemeral phenomena we encounter through sense experience.

. More Quantum Leaps: Plato

According to Plato, though there are many individual horses, cats and dogs, they are all made in the image of the one universal form of ‘the horse’, ‘the cat’, ‘the dog’ and so on. Likewise, just as there as many men, all men are made in the image of the universal ‘form of man’. The influence of this idea on later Christian thought, in which man is made in the image of God, is only one of many ways in which Plato had a direct influence on Christian theology.

Plato’s Theory of Forms, however, was not restricted to material objects. He also thought there were ideal forms of universal or abstract concepts, such as beauty, justice, truth and mathematical concepts such as number and class. Indeed, it is in mathematics that Plato’s influence is still felt strongly today, both Frege and Gödel endorsing Platonism in this respect.

The Theory of Forms also underlies Plato’s most contentious and best-known work, The Republic. In a quest to understand the nature and value of justice, Plato offers a vision of a utopian society led by an elite class of guardians who are trained from birth for the task of ruling. The rest of society is divided into soldiers and the common people. In the republic, the ideal citizen is one who understands how best they can use their talents to the benefit of the whole of society, and bends unerringly to that task.

There is little thought of personal freedom or individual rights in Plato’s republic, for everything is tightly controlled by the guardians for the good of the state as a whole. This has led some, notably Bertrand Russell, to accuse Plato of endorsing an elitist and totalitarian regime under the guise of communist or socialist principles. Whether Russell and others who level this criticism are right or not is itself a subject of great philosophical debate. But it is important to understand Plato’s reasons for organising society in this way.

The Republic is an attempt, in line with his theory of forms, to discover the ideal form of society. Plato thinks there must be one ideal way to organise society, of which all actual societies are mere imperfect copies, since they do not promote the good of all. Such a society, Plato believes, would be stronger than its neighbours and unconquerable by its enemies, a thought very much in Greek minds given the frequent warring between Athens, Sparta and the other Hellenistic city-states. But more importantly, such a society would be just to all its citizens, giving and taking from each that which is their due, with each working for the benefit of the whole. Whether Plato’s republic is an ideal, or even viable society, has had scholars divided ever since.

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Medical, Research, Science

Research suggests HRT can boost brain health

HORMONE REPLACEMENT THERAPY

TAKING hormone replacement therapy (HRT) to cope with the menopause may benefit the brain and stave off memory loss, new research suggests.

A seven-year study has found women who take HRT experience fewer age-related changes to the brain.

Detailed scans suggest HRT may help preserve the structure of the prefrontal cortex, that part of the brain linked to memory and thinking.

The US researchers also found women taking the treatment had lower accumulations of amyloid plaques, toxic proteins linked to Alzheimer’s disease.

Dr Kejal Kantarci, of the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, said: “We found one form of menopausal hormone therapy taken soon after menopause may preserve brain structure in the portion of the brain responsible for memory and thinking skills.

“It may also reduce the development of amyloid plaques that can… lead to memory loss.”

The menopause, which commonly strikes women in their late 40s and early 50s, can cause symptoms including hot flushes, headaches and night sweats. HRT tackles these by providing oestrogen as the body stops producing it.

But the recently released research suggests that the treatment may also benefit the brain.

Experts believe this is because oestrogen can protect the connections in the brain when natural hormone production stops, this protection disappears. Replacing it artificially could restore protection.

The findings are significant because many women go without HRT after studies in the early 2000s raised fears of side effects. The new paper, published in the medical journal Neurology, reports on research involving 75 healthy women with an average age of 53 who had gone through the menopause within the previous three years.

Twenty women were given HRT pills, 22 received HRT patches and 33 received placebo pills or patches that contained no hormones. The women were kept on the treatment for four years, then tracked for a further three years after the therapy ended. They had MRI brain scans every few months.

The researchers found that in those on HRT patches, there was less shrinkage in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex – a part of the brain that assists with memory, thinking, planning and reasoning. There were also lower accumulations of amyloid plaques among these women.

Those on HRT pills did not experience as much benefit while taking the therapy, but when they stopped a difference started to appear.

There was no difference between HRT treatment and placebo in thinking and memory tests, but the scans suggest that HRT influenced the structure of the brain and, that over a longer period, a difference might be seen.

Dr Sara Imarisio, of Alzheimer’s Research UK, said: “This small study found no link between HRT and memory and thinking, but women who had taken the hormone estradiol via skin patches showed some signs of better brain health.

“More studies are needed to piece together the effect of hormones on the brain and how different forms of hormone therapy might impact brain health in later life.”

. Appendage 

 

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Britain, Government, NATO, Russia, Society, United Nations

NATO stands united against reckless Russia

NATO

THE attack in Salisbury was the first offensive use of a nerve agent on NATO soil since the alliance was created in 1949. It involved one of the most toxic substances ever deployed. And the attack displayed total disrespect for human life.

As the fallout from the attack continues, many people have been rightly appalled that a chemical-nerve agent could be used in a small cathedral city. People there just go innocently about their daily lives.

All NATO allies stand in solidarity with Britain. The alliance has offered support as the investigation proceeds, and it has called on Russia to urgently address the UK’s questions. NATO also says that Russia should provide full disclosure of the Novichok programme to the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW).

Any use of chemical weapons is a threat to international peace and security – an unacceptable breach of international norms and rules, which has no place in a civilised world.

Sadly, though, the attack in Salisbury comes against the backdrop of a reckless pattern of Russian behaviour over many years.

The illegal annexation of Crimea. Support to separatists in eastern Ukraine. Unwelcome Russian troops in Moldova and Georgia. Meddling in the domestic affairs of countries such as Montenegro. Attempts to undermine our democratic elections and institutions. Cyber-attacks and disinformation. And Russia has also been investing in new weapons, some of which carry nuclear warheads. NATO has responded: our defences are now stronger than at any point since the Cold War.

NATO has tripled the size of its multinational response force to 40,000 troops – with a 5,000-strong spearhead force ready to deploy anywhere within 72 hours. It has also stepped up air patrols over the Baltic and Black seas.

The alliance has deployed four battalion groups to Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland, with contributions from across the membership – a clear demonstration that the organisation stands together, all for one and one for all. Britain leads the battlegroup in Estonia; they’re protecting the whole of Europe.

When it comes to Russia, NATO’s response remains firm, defensive and proportionate. It won’t mirror Russia tank for tank, missile for missile, or soldier for soldier. It will continue to combine strong deterrence and defence with the search for meaningful political dialogue.

When tensions run high, and they invariably are, it’s important both sides talk to each other, to avoid misunderstandings and miscalculations. NATO does not want a new Cold War. And it certainly doesn’t want to be dragged into a new arms race. An arms race has no winners. It is expensive, risky, and in nobody’s interest.

Russia will continue to seek to divide us. But NATO allies stand united. Twenty-nine countries – representing half the world’s military and economic might.

Britain does not stand alone.

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