Category Archives: Psychology

Arts, Health, Life, Psychology

Understanding well-being

WELLBEING

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THE phrase, “state of well-being” is often loosely bandied about, but what does this phrase actually mean? It is a rather nebulous phrase, which many interpret as synonymous with welfare or level of happiness, state of physical or mental health or degree of satisfaction with life.

Perhaps all these factors do form part of what we mean by this term, but not necessarily so. For example, let us speculate upon Andrea Bocelli, the renowned Italian tenor who became blind at the age of twelve. Must his level of positive well-being be significantly compromised because of his physical infirmity? There is every possibility that Bocelli might enjoy an extremely high level of positive well-being despite his lack of sight, since estimation of one’s well being is a highly subjective phenomenon.

As the author Antoine de Saint-Exupéry perspicaciously implies in a 1943 story entitled, Le Petit Prince, it is what we think of ourselves that counts and determines our state of well-being. However, what we think of ourselves, for good or ill, can be greatly influenced by what others think of us:

I have no right, by anything I do or say, to demean a human being in his own eyes. What matters is not what I think of him; it is what he thinks of himself.

Objective measures of well-being

We can attempt to measure welfare or well-being in accordance with objective measures, such as where a person may be located on various scales – be they economic, social, psychological, physical or even spiritual – but none of these actually capture the reality of well-being as experienced by the individual.

Practitioners often come into contact with many people who ostensibly have no business not to enjoy high levels of positive well-being, status, good health, loving relationships, interesting careers and so much more. And yet, such people are known to suffer from depression, anger, addictions, eating disorders and anxiety, as well as other mental health afflictions. Clearly, then, objective measures alone do not provide an accurate assessment for an individual’s state of well-being.

Positive well-being is about meeting our expectations

It is generally accepted that being adequately fed, watered, housed and exercised, along with being gainfully employed and well-educated, as well as having good physical health, are all components that facilitate positive well-being, but they are far from the whole story.

Well-being is primarily concerned with the degree to which our expectations, dreams and aspirations are met, and these are totally unique to each individual. Many of our attitudes are a direct result of our “nurturing” and this, along with our own aptitudes and personality – our “nature” – mingle together to form ideals of what success looks like for each of us.

Culture influences our sense of well-being

Depending upon our cultural heritage we might favour a collective or individualistic approach to life (or maybe a combination of the two), and this will colour our estimation of personal well-being. In a strictly collectivist society, blending into the group and not drawing attention to oneself generates feelings of acceptance, belonging and comfort. Even if the price paid is conceding to a high degree of conformity to group expectations, this will still work towards affording a sense of positive well-being for the majority who have been socialised in this manner.

We are not all equally malleable in continuing to society’s conventions

There are mavericks in every society, where the personal imperative outstrips that of the social; these highly autonomous individuals buck the trend and follow their own course of action, often at their own peril. Not to follow their own star would lead to considerable inner conflict and result in a state of negative well-being. Many of this ilk find themselves “damned if they do and damned if they don’t” in subscribing to normative behaviour.

These people, by not conforming, invite society’s disapproval or, by conceding to society’s expectations, they feel that they have not been true to themselves and experience dissonance. Dissonance is a state of mental conflict when you experience contradictory emotions and beliefs. In the not-too-distant-past, working women who wished to pursue their career after having children faced this dilemma.

Individualistic society

In fiercely individualistic societies, being indistinguishable from the pack tends to promote negative well-being, since leadership, power and talent differentiate an individual from the herd, attracting kudos and admiration. Individualistic socialisation demands that we stand out from the crowd if we are to feel good about ourselves and enjoy positive well-being. This pressure can be seen in cultures that emphasise educational attainment, and prestigious institutions can foster individualism to an even higher level.

Collectivist vs. individualistic

The powerful impact of nurturing and socialisation, resulting in the inculcation of society’s expectations, mores and values, can be seen in the contrast between collectivist and individualistic societies. Public shame has a far greater negative impact on well-being in Japan, a collectivist society, than it has in contemporary Europe, which favours a more individualistic approach. One only has to look at the number of disgraced European officials who have bounced back into public life, subsequent to their humiliation and ruination. In contrast, a number of Japanese politicians and business leaders have accepted personal responsibility for their government’s or organisation’s shortcomings in the last decade, often resigning their positions. Today, in European society, people tolerate a variety of responses. Some applaud the manifestation of honour and integrity which resignation signals, while others praise the resilience of those who insist upon remaining in post.

The important thing to keep in mind is that societal attitudes are constantly changing and evolving. Many people do get stuck in a time warp and hold on to childish perceptions about themselves and feelings, such as shame, which negatively impact their well-being. It is advisable to constantly reassess your perceptions of experiences and work out if the view you are holding is in line with your current values and beliefs. Often when you go through this process you will recognise that you are carrying parental, peer or societal attitudes that are not in tune with your own moral compass, and which therefore need to be updated.

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Arts, Literature, Philosophy, Psychology

(Philosophy) The Stoic: ‘Observe Cause and Effect’

UNBIASED THOUGHT

“Pay Close attention in conversation to what is being said, and to what follows from any action. In the action, immediately look for the targets, in words, listen closely to what’s being signalled.” – Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, 7.4

THROUGH the work of the psychologist Albert Ellis, Stoicism has reached millions of people through what’s known as cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT). As a form of therapy, CBT helps patients identify destructive patterns in their thoughts and behaviour so they can, over time, direct and influence them in a more positive direction.

Of course, Marcus Aurelius had no formal training in psychology, but his words here are as important as any doctor’s. He’s asking you to become an observer of your own thoughts and the actions those thoughts provoke. Where do they come from? What biases do they contain? Are they constructive or destructive? Do they cause you to make mistakes or engage in behaviour you later regret? Look for patterns; find where cause meets effect.

Only when this is done can negative behaviour patterns be broken; only then can real life improvements be made.

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Medical, Psychology, Science

(Quantum Leaps): Sigmund Freud

1856–1939

“The interpretation of dreams is the royal road to the unconscious activities of the mind.” – Freud

SIGMUND Freud’s popular impact remains profound even today. Yet for a scientist who changed the world, some critics would argue that his methods were at best unscientific and at worst downright reckless. Indeed, later thinkers in the fields of psychology and psychiatry have long since discredited many of his conclusions but still the Austrian’s influence pervades. Whatever the rights or wrongs of his ‘scientific’ deductions, Sigmund Freud remains the benchmark by which others working in the same field must compare themselves and compete against.

Medical Beginnings

Freud’s entry into science was far less controversial. He began by studying medicine at the University of Vienna in 1873 and went on to take up a position at a hospital in the same city from 1882. It was time spent working with the French neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot (1825–93) in Paris 1885, however, which set him on the path of his future career. Here he worked with patients suffering from hysteria and began to analyse the causes of their behaviour. Additional research with Josef Breuer back in Vienna during the early 1890s helped develop the basis for all of his future work, culminating in the publication of Studies in Hysteria in 1895.

The Idea of ‘Free Association’

In common with views generally held at the time, at the heart of Freud’s conclusions was a belief that mental illness was normally a psychological rather than a physical brain disease. Once one accepted this premise then Freud’s introduction of the idea of “psychoanalysis” for diagnosing the causes of mental disorder (and indeed ultimately to explain all mental behaviour) was a logical one.

One of the innovative tools he developed to aid in this was the idea of “free association”. Rather than hypnotise people as was traditional, Freud advocated this method whereby patients enunciated thoughts or ideas which came into their consciousness without prior contemplation or analysis.

Dream Theory

From this Freud believed he could make an insight into the “unconscious” of a patient and, in particular, the “repressed” thoughts and emotions (often related to past negative experiences) which their “conscious” prevented from being articulated or enacted upon. For Freud, having a patient understand and acknowledge their repressed desires was a route to therapy and ultimately the treatment of a mental disorder. He also believed that dreams offered a major insight into repressed thoughts held in the unconscious mind. This is shown in his most prominent work – which fully established his revolutionary approach – and which is entitled The Interpretation of Dreams, published in 1899.

While many critics were able to bear with – if not necessarily agree with – Freud’s interpretations up until this point, he caused an outcry with his 1905 Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality. His conclusions included the explanation that most repressed behaviour was in essence suppression of sexual impulses and, most shockingly, this activity began in infancy. It was here that he also introduced the now notorious concept of the Oedipus complex, a phrase used by Freud to describe feelings of sexual attraction of a child for its parent of the same sex, and hostility to the parent of the other sex. This phrase, Freud claimed, speculatively at best, was one that all children passed through.

Gradually, however, Freud’s analyses would gain credibility, if not necessarily with everyone, and certainly by the 1920s they had entered the popular consciousness on a global scale. He wrote many other texts including the 1923 The Ego and the ID. Freud effectively redefined the “unconscious” as the “ID”, an intangible collection of base impulses such as instincts and emotions present in the mind from birth. With experience, living and structure, aspects of the ID would gradually help formulate a person’s “ego”.

Freud By Name, Freudian By Nature

Freud’s legacy remains as much in the tools of language that he has bestowed on the modern world as anything else. Terms he introduced or of which he altered the meaning to give them our now common understanding, include: psychoanalysis, free association, the ID, the ego, neuroses, repression, the Oedipus complex and, of course, the Freudian slip. The structured, systematic approach he brought to analysing an inherently difficult-to-quantify subject also pervaded the work of his successors in the field.

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