Arts, Books, Britain, History

Book Review – Liberty’s Dawn: ‘A People’s History of the Industrial Revolution’…

LITERARY REVIEW

THIS recently released book by Emma Griffin, published by Yale University Press for £25, describes how life wasn’t all trouble at the mill prior to the Industrial Revolution. History books have led us to believe that the working classes had a thoroughly rotten time of it during the turbulent years of the Industrial Revolution. A picture is often painted of people being uprooted from their picturesque rural hovels, crammed together in filthy factories where they either wheezed themselves into early graves, or else became hideously entangled in a life that revolved entirely around the Spinning Wheel.

Emma Griffin, though, doesn’t see it like this. She perceives the Industrial Revolution as having been a tremendous boom to a lot of working class people: they earned far more than they had done before, escaped lives of crushing poverty and destitution and, for the first time, began to exert some measure of control over their lives.

Reviewers’ might be tempted to dismiss Griffin’s work as the ravings of a particularly cranky historian desperate to make a splash – except that Ms Griffin has lots of anecdotal evidence to back up her claims. This was the age, we should remember, in which large numbers of working men and women learned how to read and write.

Remarkably, their self-confessed testimonies, or ‘autobiographies’, as Griffin calls them, have been sitting largely untouched in county archives for the past 200 years.

It is apparent that Emma Griffin has stumbled on an enormous treasure trove. The writer suggests that our ancestors, faltering at first, but later with increasing confidence, describe their daily lives with vivid clarity.

Just a generation earlier they would have been illiterate. Now, with the world changing at a furious and fast pace all round them, they sought to set down their experiences for the benefit of their children and for future generations.

One man recalling the seven years he spent working in a Lancashire factory in the early 19th century wrote: ‘I was never as happy as I was then.’

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Arts, Drama

Lateral Thinking Drama: ‘Shipwrecked’

THE PLIGHT OF HENRY JOHNSON

THE FIRST THING Henry Johnson became aware of as he awoke was the warmth of the morning sun. The second was the not-so-distant lap of waves on the shore. And the third was a headache which felt as though someone was gouging out the inside of his skull with a chisel.

Blearily, Henry opened his eyes. He was lying on a sandy beach, about ten metres from the water’s edge. He groaned as memory returned. Yesterday he had been sailing across the southern Pacific, blissfully alone. Then a dark cloud had appeared on the horizon. Quickly it had filled the sky and, as night fell, a tropical storm had broken around him. He had battled for hours to save his boat. He might have succeeded too, if it hadn’t suddenly bucked on a huge wave, causing him to fall back and strike his head against the boom. Dazed, he lost his footing entirely, and slipped from the deck into the sea.

The storm had abated, but his boat was nowhere to be seen. Henry was cast adrift. His life-jacket kept him afloat, but the cold began to seep into his bones. His teeth chattered and he shivered uncontrollably. Eventually, though, the chill seemed to lessen. Lulled by the waves, he felt himself drifting into sleep – a sleep from which (a small part of him was anxiously aware) he would probably never awaken.

Then he was jerked back to full consciousness by his knee scraping against a rock. He realised that the sea here was shallow, and when he looked up he could see a strip of white sand. On the horizon three tall palm trees were silhouetted against the moon. With the last vestiges of strength left in his limbs, Henry began to swim…

…AND NOW IT WAS MORNING. Henry groaned again and sat up. Of his boat, ‘The Happy Wanderer’, there was no sign. The beach was deserted, and he realised the same was probably true of the whole island. There were no cigarette butts in the sand, no discarded cans, no mini-mopeds buzzing in the distance. It appeared that the tour operators had so far overlooked this particular jewel in the South Pacific.

The Sun was getting hotter. Henry realised that, if he was to survive here, his first priority must be finding fresh water. He looked around. The palm trees he had seen last night were a little way inland; other than that, the island seemed to be mainly scrub. Rain was evidently a rare commodity here. Just my luck to be caught in their annual storm, he thought bitterly.

Henry rose unsteadily to his feet. He stripped off the heavy life jacket, so that he was just wearing cut-off jeans and a T-shirt, and headed towards the trees. His survival knowledge was limited, but he had an idea that their presence indicated fresh water nearby. He stumbled over the fine sand. Between the three palms, as he had hoped, there was a small pool. Henry cupped his hands and drank deeply. At least he would not die of thirst…not yet, anyway.

Henry’s head was throbbing, and he realised he had to find some shade. He guessed the temperature to be into the nineties by now, although the sun was still nowhere near its zenith. He looked around. The island appeared flat and offered few possibilities, but further down the beach he could see a few pieces of driftwood. Perhaps they might form the basis of a shelter?

As Henry walked closer, he realised that they were parts of his boat. He even found a bit of the bow with the name ‘The Happy Wanderer’ on it, and some scraps of paper from his charts. His heart sank. Now he knew for sure that there would be no quick return to civilisation. He would have to wait to be rescued: possibly days, possibly weeks, possibly much longer.

Perspiring heavily, Henry gathered all the flotsam that he could find. As well as the wood and scraps of paper, he found a metal drinking mug, a tiny candle and a box of matches. The good news was that the latter had been wrapped in a plastic bag to keep out the damp; the bad news was that inside was only a single match. His most useful find, as far as shelter was concerned, was an oily tarpaulin. Returning to the palms, he built a sort of dug-out in the sand, which he covered with the tarpaulin. Luxury villa it wasn’t, but at least it would give him some protection. He pulled himself inside and, exhausted, fell into a deep, dreamless sleep.

…HE WAS WOKEN by a chill wind. The tarpaulin had blown off, revealing a clear, starry night, and had become caught on one of the palm trees, where it flapped loudly in the wind. Henry wrestled it back from the trunk. In that wind there was no chance of rebuilding his dug-out, so he wrapped the tarpaulin around himself to try to keep out the numbing cold.

Through the rest of the night, Henry slept little. His whole body ached; his head throbbed mercilessly; and his stomach growled, reminding him that he had not eaten for two whole days. He realised that he must have burned up a lot of energy fighting the storm and, later, in the sea. Unless he ate soon, he would become too weak to fend for himself.

The next day, fighting a growing lethargy, he managed to assemble what might be the makings of a meal. There wasn’t much: just a few roots, some insect grubs, a yellow worm, and a small scorpion he had seen almost too late. But if he could start a fire, he might be able to make some kind of stew in the mug. Hands shaking, he collected together all the items he’d gathered from the wreck of his boat.

Henry paused, confused. His stomach was shrieking out for food, but his brain no longer seemed to be functioning correctly. He looked at the little collection in front of him – the scraps of wood he’d dried, the tiny candle and the scraps of paper from his charts – but he couldn’t for the life of him figure out which to light first.

– In order to light a fire, to cook the desperately needed meal, which of the items salvaged from the wreck of ‘The Happy Wanderer’ should Harry light first?

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Arts, History, Science

Quantum Leaps: Blaise Pascal, 1623-1662…

PASCAL

Blaise Pascal, a Frenchman who passed away at the age of just thirty-nine, his time on earth unfortunately cut short by poor health, made significant contributions to the fields of mathematics and science – this, despite his abandonment of scientific study in favour of religious devotion in 1655.

During his twenties Pascal spent a large amount of time undertaking experiments in the field of physics. The most important of these involved measuring air pressure. An Italian scientist, Evangelista Torricelli (1608 – 47), had argued that air pressure would decrease at higher altitudes. Pascal set out to prove this by using a mercury barometer. He took initial measurements in Paris and then, at the 1200m-high Puy de Dome in 1646, confirmed in no uncertain terms that Torricelli’s speculation was true.

  • Pascal’s Law

More significantly, though, his studies in this area led him to develop Pascal’s Principle or Law, which states that pressure applied to liquid in an enclosed space distributes equally in all directions. This became the basic principle from which all hydraulic systems derived, such as those involved in the manufacture of car brakes, as well as explaining how small devices such as the car jack are able to raise a vehicle. This is because the small force created by moving the jacking handle in a sizeable sweep equates to a large amount of pressure sufficient to move the jack head a few centimetres. Applying the lessons of his studies in a practical way, Pascal went on to invent the syringe and, in 1650, the hydraulic press.

  • Child prodigy

In spite of these developments, however, Pascal is probably better remembered for his work in the area of mathematics. It was here that he showed his genius from an early age. For example, having independently discovered a number of Euclid’s theorems for himself by the age of just eleven, he went on to master The Elements, the great mathematician’s definitive text, a year later. When he was sixteen he published mathematical papers which his older contemporary Descartes at first refused to believe could have been written by someone so young. In 1642, still only nineteen, Pascal began work on inventing a mechanical calculating machine which could add and subtract. He had finished what was effectively the first digital calculator by 1644 and presented it to his father to help him in his business affairs.

  • Theory of Probability

It was not until later in his short life, around 1654, that Pascal jointly made the mathematical discovery which would have the most impact on future generations. It had begun with a request by an obsessive gambler, the Chevalier de Méré, for assistance in calculating the chance of success in the games he played. Together with Pierre de Fermat, another French mathematician, Pascal developed the theory of probabilities, using his now famous Pascal’s Triangle, in the process. As well as its obvious impact upon all parts of the gambling industry, the importance of understanding probability has had subsequent application in areas stretching from statistics to theoretical physics.

The SI unit of pressure – the pascal – and the computer language, Pascal (named in honour of his contribution to computing through his invention of the early calculator), are named after him in recognition of two of his main areas of scientific success.

Seven of the calculating devices that he produced in 1649 survive to this day.

  • Pascal’s Wager

Like many of his contemporaries, Pascal did not separate his science from philosophy, and his book Pensees, he applies his mathematical probability theory to the perennial philosophical problem of the existence of God. In the absence of evidence for or against God’s existence, says Pascal, the wise man will choose to believe, since if he is correct he will gain his reward, and if he is incorrect he stands to lose nothing, an interesting, if somewhat cynical argument.

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